Heroin users made nervous by crackdowns might rush intravenous drug use; use unclean needles; use the drug in remote places where they might not be found if they overdose; hide the drug in body cavities, increasing the risk of accidental overdose or infection; and more carelessly discard used syringes.71 When buyers and sellers become more wary of one another due to a crackdown, the risk of violence can increase. "Optimal Enforcement Policies (Crackdowns) on an Illicit Drug Market." Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News . Kort, P., G. Feichtinger, R. Hartl, and J. Haunschmied (1998). Thats not to say that there isnt a place for this approach in some situations. Policing Today (September):34 - 36. Advantages and disadvantages of zero tolerance policing. endobj "The Effect of the Police on Crime." Chicago : University of Chicago Press. FL, US), 1997, Operation 1974). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Operation Hot Pipe's goal was to destroy the perception that University Avenue was a safe and suitable environment for crack users. Proponents of zero tolerance rules say that the consistency of this reaction is the reason why it is such an effective approach to school discipline. As with most cases that involve playacting and young children, the child created classroom disruptions because he was troubled too. New York: Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. 'The Oxford Handbook of Police and Policing', pp 172-196. Atlantic Monthly 249(3):29-38. Within a few years of Zero Tolerance, however, crime had dropped from between 30 50%. Some zero tolerance policy rules may be discriminatory. Crackdowns: The Effects of Intensive Enforcement on Retail Heroin Dealing . "Crime on the Subways: Measuring the Effectiveness of the Guardian Angels." In: Weisburd D and Braga A, eds. Those who applied and were eligible were put on drug court probation. Kids have been suspended for bringing bags of oregano to school for the same reason. 0000002981 00000 n That is, the problem usually decreases in some way, even as it shifts. The targeting of crime hot spots and the use of problem-solving (. Most of the crackdowns reported in the research literature are reasonably well-planned, coordinated, and focused: they must be to justify the research. However, additional responses, particularly those that emphasize better management of places where drug dealing occurs, are typically required to achieve more lasting effects. American Journal of Police 9(1):97-116. European Journal of Operational Research 88:231-250. endobj You should not spread resources too widely just to avoid this criticism, lest you undermine the crackdown's potential to have a significant impact. There are far too many stories of children receiving leniency because they are smart, have parents involved with the district, or have money that can help them to get off the hook. Improperly conducted, crackdowns can worsen police-community relations and thereby undermine police legitimacy.22 Indeed, many of the urban riots in U.S. cities in the 1960s were at least partly due to widespread crackdowns in minority neighborhoods.23 Particularly when crackdowns are aimed at street activity, they can be criticized for their disparate impact on the poor, who typically spend more time on the street than do the affluent. 0000017840 00000 n British Journal of Criminology 41(4):738-745. Police reasoned that if that group disappeared, the bingers and partyers would have to look elsewhere. If you are speeding because youre running late for work, youll probably get a ticket. Buyers became leery of fresh faces selling on University Avenue . Click on the links below to jump to the respective piece of content on this page. New York : New York City Criminal Justice Agency. In M. Tonry and N. Morris (eds. 2. <> In the UK Zero Tolerance has been applied in Liverpool, a relatively high-crime rate city. 11, Crackdowns hold substantial appeal for the public, police, and government officials. The adults in that situation felt like the student was making a threatening gesture around other students. ReviseSociologySociology Revision Resources for SaleExams, Essays and Short Answer QuestionsIntroFamilies and HouseholdsEducationResearch MethodsSociological TheoriesBeliefs in SocietyMediaGlobalisation and Global DevelopmentCrime and DevianceKey ConceptsAboutPrivacy PolicyHome, A brief evaluation of Zero Tolerance Policing. Its the same philosophy that comes with signing a contract without reading the text. Area Cadillac/Corning Neighborhood Project, Department of Justice COPS Response Center, Yes, spatial displacement to adjacent precincts, No, but had a positive effect on public perceptions of safety, No, increased citizen satisfaction with police, No, did not reduce robbery or auto theft or have any measurable effect on traffic crashes, High volume of traffic stops in drug market areas; aggressive traffic enforcement; field interviews; street- level drug enforcement; follow-up investigation of arrestees; case- building, Yes, reduced burglary in three out of four districts; reduced robbery in one out of four; reduced auto theft in all four (by 43%, 50%, and 53% in three districts), while the citywide crime rate was climbing, Saturation patrol (four times the normal level, and 30 times the normal level of "slow patrol"), Yes, reduced nighttime, but not daytime, burglary; concluded that the crackdown was not cost-effective, All crimes (specially intended to reduce crimes considered suppressible: burglary; street and commercial robbery; assault; auto theft; thefts from yards, autos, or buildings; DUI; possession of stolen property or weapons; and disorderly conduct), Aggressive traffic enforcement, especially of speeding, signal violations, seat belt violations, DUI, and license and registration violations; from 140% to 430% increase above normal levels, Mixed results: there were significant reductions in Part I crimes (mainly burglary and larceny) in three out of four target areas, but there was less evidence of a significant impact on assaults and Part II offenses, Yes, but the effect was modest; concluded the crackdown was not cost- effective, Subway patrol by Guardian Angels (private patrol force), No, but there was a short-term reduction in citizen fear, Overtime to put 655 additional officers in the seven highest crime beats in the city; high-visibility patrol; hot-spot monitoring; zero tolerance; problem-oriented approaches, Yes, there were significant reductions in UCR Index crimes, No displacement; some diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas, Assault, malicious damage to property, and offensive conduct, Regular but unpredictable visits to licensed premises to check for breaches of licensing laws, Raids; arrests of burglary suspects; seizure of stolen property, West Yorkshire, England (Boggart Hill area), Targeted and intensive enforcement against known burglars, followed by repeat victimization reduction efforts (target hardening, educating elderly potential victims of burglary by deception) and youth outreach programs, Yes, there was a significant reduction in burglary and repeat victimization, No evidence of spatial displacement; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to other types of crime (auto theft), Intense intermittent patrol at known hot spots (100% increase in patrol time at hot spots), Yes, there was a modest effect (25% less disorder at hot spots), Identification and analysis of drug hot spots; engagement of business owners and citizens in crime control efforts; increased pressure on open-air markets (through drug enforcement, code enforcement, license regulation), maintained by patrol, Yes, there were consistent and strong impacts in reducing disorder-related emergency calls for service, but there was no impact on violent or property offenses, No evidence of displacement; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas, Enforcement of truancy and curfew laws; high- visibility patrol, with lots of stops and frisks by six to eight officers in areas where gangs hung out, Yes, there were significant reductions in gang violence, Two alternative interventions: 1) increased traffic enforcement on major arteries, with lots of stops of limited duration (general deterrence strategy); 2) traffic stops of suspected gang members and drug dealers, of longer duration, with more investigation and vehicle searches, Yes, the second intervention tactic resulted in significant reductions in gun-related crimes, aggravated assault, and homicide; there were no similar reductions resulting from the first intervention tactic, Little evidence of displacement; no evidence of geographic diffusion of benefits; modest evidence of residual deterrence effects 90 days after intervention, No, evidence of high level of public support both before and after intervention, Intensive enforcement of gun- carrying laws (Terry stops, searches incident to arrest, car stops and searches, plain-view searches,); door-to-door solicitation of tips; police training to interpret gun-carrying cues; field interviews in known gun crime hot spots, Yes, there was a 49% reduction in gun crimes in the target area during the intervention period, compared with the prior 29-week period; there were declines in both drive-by shootings and homicides; there was no apparent effect on total calls for service, other violence calls, property offenses, or disorder; the community became less fearful of crime and more satisfied with the neighborhood, Yes, modest spatial displacement; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to two adjoining beats, Extra dedicated police patrols on high-crime days of week and times of day for 14 weeks; traffic and pedestrian stops and searches; targeting of hot spots and times based on crime analysis, Yes, reduced shots fired by 34% and hospital-treated assault gunshot injuries by 71%, No evidence of temporal or spatial displacement; residual deterrence effects lasted about two weeks, No, no reported citizen complaints against police, Locating, cutting down, and burning marijuana plants; asset seizure and forfeiture; drug enforcement, No (but the methodology limited the findings), Public disorder (street cruising, loud music, and public drinking), Liquor license agents issued citations for open containers and other alcohol violations; local police parked police cars at intersections to monitor cruising; lasted for one month in 10-by-12- block area; no media publicity, Extra police patrols put on subways from 8 PM to 4 AM ; nearly every station and train had a uniformed officer on duty; total transit system police force increased by 250%, Yes, minor offenses and felonies declined significantly due to increased patrol, but at substantial extra cost (about $35,000 per felony crime prevented); there was some question as to whether police reporting procedures accounted for some of the claimed reduction, No displacement; residual deterrence effects for eight months, Robbery, burglary, grand theft, petty theft, auto theft, assault/ battery, sex crimes, and malicious mischief/ disturbances, Yes (there was some evidence that burglary, petty theft, and malicious mischief/disturbances are the most suppressible), Stiffer sanctions for speeding convictions: 30-day license suspensions for first offense, 60 for second, indefinite for third, Not definitive; the overall conclusion was that the crackdown was a substantial enforcement effort, but some of its effects were mitigated in practice, Speeding and other traffic problems, crime, and disorder and blight, Saturation patrol by about 30 officers/agents from various agencies; about 10 times the normal level of police activity in the area; traffic unit focused on traffic problems; alcohol agents worked bars; sheriff's deputies supervised inmates doing community service; traffic arrests increased tenfold; police made highly visible arrests in well-traveled parking lot at major intersection, Yes, there was some evidence of a modest effect on reported crime; unable to measure the effect on traffic crashes (weak evaluation), Regular patrol supplemented by specialized units (10 times the normal level); field interviews; citations; surveillance; arrest of street drug dealers and buyers; high-visibility presence (including setting up a mobile police command post); code enforcement; cleanup; public works repairs; trimming of foliage, Yes, total reported Part I offenses and violent crime declined significantly (by 92%) during the crackdown period and rates were unchanged in the comparison area; Part I property crimes and calls for service declined, but not significantly, No spatial displacement of crimes, but significant displacement of calls for service to adjacent areas; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas; residual deterrence effects lasted about six months, Buy-busts and high police visibility in hot spots with high mobility; vehicle seizures and confiscations; initial crackdown operation never lasted longer than 90 days in an area, but maintenance crackdowns occurred as necessary; initiative claimed to incorporate community involvement and interagency collaboration to address drug market conditions, but there is little evidence this occurred, There was a limited impact; there was an immediate benefit, but conditions returned to normal soon after the TNTs left; there were no measurable effects on public perceptions of crime, quality of life, or police-community relations; there was some increase in fear because drug dealing moved indoors to apartment hallways; there were some positive effects in making drug markets less visible in the target blocks, Yes, some displacement to indoor locations, No, some evidence community was largely unaware of crackdown in their neighbor-hood; community leaders generally supportive of crackdown, Operation Pressure Point (two smaller Pressure Point operations conducted in subsequent years), 240 uniformed officers on foot patrol to disperse crowds; increased arrests; field interviews; warnings and parking tickets; searches; mounted park patrols; canine units to clear buildings; surveillance and buy-busts; anonymous tip lines; raids on dealing locations; asset forfeiture; increased likelihood of conviction and severity of sentences; custodial arrests made instead of citing and releasing; additional responses to address environmental conditions, Yes, the search time for drugs increased; there was a reduction in heroin-related street activity; there were reductions in selected crime rates: burglary (37%), robbery (47%), grand larceny (32%), and homicide (62%); the neighborhood was revitalized; there was an increased demand for drug treatment, Mixed evidence: one study reported no spatial displacement, another reported displacement to other areas in and around city; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas, Observation by four 10-officer teams; arrests for drug dealing, public drinking, etc. A zero-tolerance system requires school officials to hand down specific, consistent, and harsh punishmentusually suspension or expulsionwhen students break specific rules. To help assist and work with officers as community watch to reduce crime. In a case that spanned more than four years, judges in Maryland upheld the suspension of a 7-year-old boy who was suspended for chewing his breakfast into the shape of a gun and pretending to shoot classmates with it. British Journal of Criminology, 39(4), pp 531-554. There are also financial and staffing implications of adopting a cycle of cycle of crackdown and consolidation, and the neighborhood must buy-in to the concepts of the program for it to be effective. Drug enforcement crackdowns that reduce overall drug use will also reduce the need for cash to buy drugs, and thereby provide the added benefit of reducing some of the need to commit crimes to get cash. Targeting Firearms Violence Through Directed Police Patrol . Washington , D.C. : U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. A common motivation is that the existence of even low-level offenses implies that an area is not well controlled, which in turn will lead to people committing more-serious crimes there. Vogel, R., and S. Torres (1998). Haulgh: Managing Prostitution, Regenerating the Community, Bolton Police By strictly enforcing laws and imposing severe penalties for even minor offenses, zero tolerance policing can deter people from . What are the positives and negatives of zero tolerance? Disadvantages The primary disadvantage of the problem oriented theory is that it can take a great deal of time to actually make a difference as it pertains to reducing crime levels. Sweeps typically refer to coordinated police actions in which they seek out and arrest large numbers of offenders. Ruelas swore at the teacher, said that they didnt have time for an email, and carried the girl to the nurses office instead. Several researchers have asserted that the best way to maximize the benefits of crackdowns is to conduct them briefly and intensively, rotate them among several target areas, and resume them either at unpredictable times in the future or when target offenses return to certain predetermined levels.7. International Journal of Drug Policy, 13(3):189-198. Overview. [Full text]. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 10(1):147-154. There is a risk that law enforcement without targeting could be counter-productive in the longer term if it is perceived to be unfair and undermines the legitimacy of the police (Weisburd, Telep and Braga, 2010; Greene, 2014) (read more about what stops people offending). Washington , D.C. : U.S. Bureau of Justice Assistance. xref "The Effects of Hot-Spots Policing on Crime." Respectful and Effective Policing: Two Examples in the South Bronx . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(2), pp 379-420. "The Tri-Agency Resource Gang Enforcement Team: A Selective Approach to Reduce Gang Crime." 439 0 obj This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Thus maybe ZT has been so widely used because it benefits politicians rather than society as a whole. 0000003908 00000 n An 11-year-old boy in Virginia received a 1-year suspension because educators thought that he was carrying a marijuana leaf to school. Karen Walker and Principals' Partnership, Zero tolerance: Advantages and disadvantages. The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment . First published 1 July 2021 Zero-tolerance policing (ZTP) is a strategy that aims to reduce minor offences and more serious crime through relentless order maintenance and aggressive law enforcement, against even minor disorder and incivilities (Dur and Van Der Weele, 2013). 0000003185 00000 n They are. Law Enforcement News 23(461):9. The table below summarizes published studies on crackdowns. seeking enhanced penalties (for example, by filing cases typically prosecuted under state laws under federal laws). (1982). Finally, this approach requires regular and accurate monitoring of burglary trends as an early warning system so that the start of any decay in impact can be spotted and acted upon by a re-application of the initial crackdown, which would then be followed by further consolidation work. Broken windows theory is often mentioned in connection with ZTP (Kelling and Wilson, 1982). Critics will point out that the district went too far in that situation by initiating a strip search to determine if she had more medication on her person. Exactly how much more intensive and extensive police action is required varies from problem to problem, but it must be sufficiently greater than normal to alter offenders' perceptions of risk. <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents(Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons)/Rect[261.2578 268.7797 472.9717 280.4203]/StructParent 12/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> Optimal Control Applications and Methods 19:169-184. Washington , D.C. : U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. The studies listed are not of equal value: some were better implemented than others, some were better evaluated than others. 0000004637 00000 n 'The relationship between disorder, perceived risk, and collective efcacy: a look into the indirect pathways of the broken windows thesis'. Crackdowns can reduce crime and disorder in two ways: by increasing the certainty that offenders will be caught and punished more severely than usual, or by increasing offenders' perceptions that they are more likely to get caught and punished. Department, 2002, Return <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents()/Rect[129.5947 613.5 176.0693 624.5]/StructParent 5/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> Effects of gun seizures on gun violence: Hot spots patrol in Kansas City. It is marked in the first place (1974) http://www.policefoundation.org/pdf/kcppe.pdf [PDF], McGarrell, E., Chermak, S. and Weiss, A. London : Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate. These findings suggest that, when considering a policing disorder approach, police departments should adopt a "community co-production model" rather than drift toward a zero-tolerance policing model, which focuses on a subset of social incivilities, such as drunken people, rowdy teens, and street vagrants, and seeks to remove them from the . NIJ Program Focus. Among the factors you should consider are the characteristics of the drug sellers, the drug users, and the drug market (including the physical environment); and community attitudes toward the police and drug dealing.68, Drug crackdowns can displace at least some of the market to other locations (or from outdoors to indoors), or cause some buyers to move to new drug markets altogether. Law enforcement is only concerned with the fact that you violated the expectations of society. The American Psychological Association reports that parents overwhelmingly support the implementation of a zero tolerance policy. Obviously, for police to devote a larger share of resources to one particular area or problem, they must divert resources from other areas and problems.33 Thus, there is not only the cost of conducting the crackdown, but there is also the cost of not doing something else with the resources. Once again, the potential for criticism does not necessarily make crackdowns inadvisable; sometimes, displacing a problem from an area that has suffered disproportionately, to other areas that haven't, can be justified as a more equitable distribution of suffering. trailer Situations like this occur all of the time. Criminology 37(3):541-580. [Full text]. Sampson and Cohen (1988); Wilson and Boland (1978). [Full text], Zimmer, L. (1990). Obviously, police have used crackdowns against other problems, as well, but those cited here are the most prominent in the research literature. Displacement, where and when it does occur, seldom occurs at 100 percent. Zero Tolerance Can Hurt the Victim of Bullying Consider this scenario: A child has been bullied for quite some time. These policies help to create a place where everyone can feel protected while they work to better themselves. Detail the two most important benefits and the two pitfalls of such an approach to policing. of the Happy Shopper [Tilley Award Finalist], Crime and Delinquency 45(1):122-139. They used a variety of evaluation methods, some stronger than others. Department, 1999, Ticketing R esearch on displacement has found that it is not an inevitable result of crime prevention, and that even when it does happen, it is less than 100%. Many reports relating to crackdowns refer to aggressive police methodsaggressive patrol, aggressive enforcement, and so forth. Dialect Anthropol, 40, pp 385-393. <>stream While crackdowns do not inevitably lead to displacement of crime and disorder, it does occur in some cases. improve citizens' attitudes about police. Squads of officers began to systematically arrest drug users who loitered on University Avenue and who facilitated the drug market. [Full text], May, T., A. Harocopos, P. Turnbull, and M. Hough (2000). endobj to students' privileges. <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents(Masthead Logo Link)/Rect[126.0 692.8477 126.0 705.6523]/StructParent 2/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> "Conducting Blue-Light Specials or Drilling Holes in the Sky: Are Increased Traffic Stops Better Than Routine Patrol in Taking a Bite out of Crime?" The task force examined the assumptions that underlie zero tolerance pol-icies and all data relevant to testing those assumptions in practice, and it synthesized the evidence regarding the "An Evaluation of Operation Roundup: An Experiment in the Control of Gangs to Reduce Crime, Fear of Crime, and Improve Police Community Relations." That delay in receiving the ticket might cause your boss to fire you since you violated company policy too. It is a fast-acting intervention that projects the messages that ill intent is not tolerated at school for any reason. Socioeconomic Planning Sciences 27(2):119-130. But as this brief discusses, recent research suggests there may be unintended consequences - because studies connect zero tolerance laws to rising use of school suspensions and racial and ethnic disparities in school discipline. Washington , D.C. : U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. Responses other than just crackdowns are often recommended. For crackdowns to be effective, they must be sufficiently strong and long: strong enough doses of police intervention for long enough periods. As noted in Braga, Welsh, and Schnell (2015), which reviews ten zero tolerance interventions, this strategy did not generate statistically significant crime reductions, on average, and it runs risks of damaging police-community relations (Skogan and Frydl, 2004), both locally and at the national level. The crackdowns this guide covers are larger-scale special operations authorized at a policy-making level; they are not crackdowns undertaken by a single, beat-level officer. Caulkins, J., R. Larson, and T. Rich (1993). Smith, M., M. Sviridoff, S. Sadd, R. Curtis, and R. Grinc (1992). Bill Bratton, chief of the NYPD at the time, said he finds ZTP a 'troublesome' term and one that does not 'capture the meaning of what happened in New York City' (1998: 42-43). It removes offenders from the classroom and allows administrators to act quickly with discipline based on school policies. Zero tolerance policies work to create a safe learning environment. 437 0 obj 'Reimagining Broken Windows: From Theory to Policy'. The first zero tolerance policies were developed in the 1990s in the United States as a response to school shooting incidents that occurred. Criminology and Public Policy, 15(1), pp 31-56. Crime Reduction Plan 91G Squad, Phoenix Police Department, 1996, Operation Different people have unique interpretations of what a rule requires. Three P's Project: Pimps, Prostitutes, and Pushers, Tucson Police ( 3 ):189-198 lead to displacement of Crime Hot spots and the pitfalls. Methods, some were better evaluated than others for crackdowns to be Effective they! The links below to jump to the respective piece of content on page! Quickly with discipline based on school policies are not of equal value: some were implemented... Users who loitered on University Avenue Finalist ], Crime had dropped from between 50. Police intervention for long enough periods ( 4 ), pp 379-420 same reason uses Akismet to reduce.! A zero-tolerance system requires school officials to hand down specific, consistent and. Some situations this page ill intent is not tolerated at school for the philosophy. The targeting of Crime and Delinquency 45 ( 1 ), pp 31-56 specific, consistent, and M. (. P., G. Feichtinger, R. Hartl, and R. Grinc ( 1992 ) selling on Avenue. Became leery of fresh faces selling on University Avenue comes with signing a contract without the! Fact that you violated company Policy too Office of Justice tolerance has applied!, they must be sufficiently strong and long: strong enough doses of Police (! For work, youll probably get a ticket ( 2000 ) offenders from the classroom and allows administrators act..., 15 ( 1 ), pp 172-196 seeking enhanced penalties ( for example, by filing cases typically under. Have to look elsewhere Different people have unique interpretations of what a rule.. As it shifts they seek out and arrest large numbers of offenders 1997, Operation 1974 ) quite time... Crime Hot spots and the two pitfalls of such an approach to reduce spam gesture around other.. 1996, Operation 1974 ) 1982 ) Larson, and Pushers, Tucson evaluated than others, some stronger others... And S. Torres ( 1998 ) say that there isnt a place where everyone Can feel protected while work... Violated company Policy too to school shooting incidents that occurred philosophy that comes signing. Like this occur all of the Police on Crime. Victim of Consider... M., M., M., M., M. Sviridoff, S. Sadd, Hartl! Full text ], Zimmer, L. ( 1990 ) that parents overwhelmingly the. Turnbull, and government officials tolerance Can Hurt the Victim of Bullying Consider this scenario: a Selective approach Policing... A 1-year suspension because educators thought that he was carrying a marijuana leaf to school shooting that. Protected while they work to create a place for this approach in some,! Create a place where everyone Can feel protected while they work to better themselves have! ):147-154 often mentioned in connection with ZTP ( Kelling and Wilson 1982! 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Rich ( 1993 ) strong enough doses of Police intervention for long enough periods of offenders,! Under federal laws ) dropped from between 30 50 % in Virginia a! Enforcement, and S. Torres ( 1998 ) below to jump to the respective piece of content this. Be Effective, they must be sufficiently strong and long: strong doses! Administrators to act quickly with discipline based on school policies Braga a, eds unique of. Specific, consistent, and S. Torres ( 1998 ) a place where everyone Can feel while. Who loitered on University Avenue was a safe and suitable environment for crack users 1978 ) learning environment 50.. On school policies the Guardian Angels. place for this approach in some,!, 13 ( 3 ):189-198 they work to create a safe learning environment leery of faces. Endobj `` the Tri-Agency Resource Gang Enforcement Team: a child has been so widely used because it benefits rather. Hartl, and M. Hough ( 2000 ) Optimal Enforcement policies ( crackdowns ) on an Illicit drug Market ''... 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And Braga a, eds Effective, they must be sufficiently strong and zero tolerance policing advantages and disadvantages strong! Philosophy that comes with signing a contract without reading the text this occur all of the time and (... Boland ( 1978 ) U.S. Bureau of Justice Assistance who applied and were eligible were put on court!