", Gary D. Payton, "The Soviet-Ethiopian Liaison: Airlift and Beyond. The link was not copied. Soon after, Mixinge became one of the tens of thousands of Africans to travel to Cuba for schooling. For its part the Soviet Union was happy to give military support to the governments of Angola and Mozambique and to the ANC. Why US foreign policy was more violent in south America or east Asia than in Europe during the cold war ? According to Marxist theory, in its most advanced form, communism involves state control by the working class. This was prudent: at this stage there was no knowing who would win the Cold War. Not only did Moscow oppose colonialism in principle, but the insurgents were fighting Washingtons friends. Joseph Stalin considered Africa to be low priority and discouraged relationships with or studies of the continent. North and South Vietnam In September 1945, the Vietnamese nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam's independence from France, beginning a war that pitted Ho's communist -led Viet Minh. Goodman, Melvin A. Gorbachev and Soviet Policy in the Third World" (1990) . The truth is nuanced. Under the glare of international public opinion, colonial rule could be justified only through economic aid to uplift the natives, and this would add to the financial burden on the metropoles. France, too, prevaricated. This bibliographical essay focuses on the Cold War crises in Africa. This resulted in the widespread popularity of the ideas of Pan-Africanists from America, Europe, and the Caribbean, such as George Padmore and W.E.B. Dubois and the proponents of the concept of Ngritude as espoused by Leopold Senghor of Senegal and Aim Csaire of Martinique. Its founder Vladimir Lenin did argue in his famous book Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism that imperialism was inherently caused by capitalism, and the inaugural session of the Comintern in 1919 included a declaration of solidarity for "the colonial slaves of Africa and Asia." Nkrumah was a pan-Africanist the goals of an independent and united Africa took precedence over the socialist revolution. [10], As early as the 1930s, the Algerian Communist Party made up an important faction of the Algerian nationalist movement; however it supported France in the growing unrest, and was forced to dissolve in 1956. Even though socialist ideas were popular among African intellectuals, the emerging nationalists on the continent felt that these ideas had to somehow be molded to fit the realities of the African condition. In fact, Emmanuel Macron, President of France, described NATO as 'brain dead' in 2019. Lumumba was taken captive and subsequently executed in 1961. The Cold War was solidified by 194748, when U.S. aid had brought certain Western countries under American influence and the Soviets had established openly communist regimes. . The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc, the Socialist Bloc, and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed during the Cold War (1947-1991). Paris sold Algeria French warplanes in 1968, looking to counterbalance the Soviet influence. by the West for making a public stand against Communism, while at the Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964. Both tended to favour ambitious local military men who possessed hard power on the ground. By 1969 President Julius Nyerere, a self-declared African socialist, had accepted equipment worth over US$640,000 from the US for his police force, all of whom were members of the ruling Tanganyika African National Union Party. ", Gebru Tareke, "The Ethiopia-Somalia war of 1977 revisited. Africa: Problems in the Transition to Socialism. It will not include, therefore, one of Africas greatest human dramas, the Nigerian civil war (19671970), because the two superpowers supported the federal government in Lagos. By midnight, British and French troops had secured the canal zone and sparked fury from the United States and the Soviet Union. The Congo, Decolonization, and the Cold War, 1960-1965. London: Zed, 1986. In the late 1970s, Cold War confrontations really flared in southern Africa, but also picked up steam in the Americas. The Cold War can be seen as the period, from 1945 to 1991, of intense struggle for ideological supremacy between capitalist forces led by the USA and the forces of communism spearheaded by the USSR. Expand or collapse the "in this article" section, Communism, Marxist-Leninism, and Socialism in Africa, African Nationalist Movements and Communism, Marxism-Leninism and Crafting a Path to Liberation, Early African Postcolonial States and Liberation Movements and Socialism, Expand or collapse the "related articles" section, Expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section, Art, Art History, and the Study of Africa, British Colonial Rule in Sub-Saharan Africa, Development of Early Farming and Pastoralism, Early States And State Formation In Africa, Eastern Africa and the South Asian Diaspora, Great Lakes States of Eastern Africa, The, Health, Medicine, and the Study of Africa, Historiography and Methods of African History, Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern Slave Trades, Kongo and the Coastal States of West Central Africa. Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces soldiers, however did not engage in combat, and after the overthrow of Castro's friend Ben Bella, Cuba cut back its involvement. To gain a lasting presence on the continent. This page was last edited on 29 January 2023, at 09:44. I was aware of participating in a historic moment for the country. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. changed sides to become violently anti-Soviet. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. First, much like in Vietnam, American leaders, such as Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, believed that a Communist takeover in Angola would lead to a "domino effect" in the rest of southern Africa. By 1948 the Soviets had installed left-wing governments in the countries of eastern Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army. LGBTI Minorities and Queer Politics in Eastern and Souther Maasai and Maa-Speaking Peoples of East Africa, The, Modern African Literature in European Languages, Northeastern African States, c. 1000 BCE-1800 CE, Political Science and the Study of Africa, Postcolonial Sub-Saharan African Politics, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Africa, Social and Cultural Anthropology and the Study of Africa, States of the Zimbabwe Plateau and Zambezi Valley, Swahili City-States of the East African Coast. By entering your details, you are agreeing to our terms and conditions and privacy policy. Therefore, US policy on decolonization often clashed with its rhetoric. Such leaders had come to power at the head of disciplined parties, practised the arts of messianic leadership, and fostered popular optimism. The favorite technique therefore was to identify the Soviet Union with the rising tide of nationalism to demonstrate that they in Moscow were engaged in a common struggle against Western imperialism. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall!: Reagans Berlin Speech, https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War, The National WWII Museum New Orleans - Cold Conflict, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum - The Cold War, Cold War - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), Cold War - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up), China rips new US House committee on countering Beijing, Russia's sports exile persists 1 year after invading Ukraine, Norway official who spied for the Soviets has died in Moscow, 'It just rang': In crises, US-China hotline goes unanswered, helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954). Substantial and decisive support came from Fidel Castro as part of what he saw as Cubas mission to engage in the global conflict between privileged and underprivileged, humanity against imperialism. ", Yahia Zoubir, "Soviet policy toward the Western Sahara conflict. The term was first used by the English writer George Orwell in an article published in 1945 to refer to what he predicted would be a nuclear stalemate between two or three monstrous super-states, each possessed of a weapon by which millions of people can be wiped out in a few seconds. It was first used in the United States by the American financier and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch in a speech at the State House in Columbia, South Carolina, in 1947. Corrections? Many members of the Non-Aligned Movement (which brought together governments and liberation movements from across the Global South) saw both Soviet and Cuban intervention as another form of colonialism, a sentiment echoed in some accounts from Angola at the time. Algeria strongly supported the Palestinian cause, and when Moscow was lukewarm in support of the Six-Day War in 1967, Algeria refused to let the Soviets build a naval base at Mers El Kbir. But the moment in which these practices flourished in Africa, was short lived. Radu, Michael, and Arthur Jay Klinghoffer. [16], The South African government evoked the term rooi gevaar to refer the political and military threat posed by the Soviet Union's support for the guerrilla wings of anti-apartheid movements such as SWAPO and the ANC. [23], Soviet foreign policy in Somalia and Ethiopia was based on the Horn of Africa's strategic location for international trade and shipping as well as its military importance. There was no great Soviet strategy for taking over Africa, and generally the Soviet Union was under informed about history, political structures and the needs of the countries it supported. Afterwards he made oblique approaches towards the US. First published in the early 1980s, this book is essential reading for those interested in identifying why the most orthodox Afro-Marxist regimes of the time chose development strategies rooted in scientific socialism, or variants of Marxism-Leninism. The Kremlin thought Castro's adventurism was dangerous but it was unable to stop him. A product of the Cold War, the Southeast Asia War (1961-1973) began with communist attempts to overthrow non-communist governments in the region. During the 1950s Mau Mau uprising in Kenya, for example, MI5 investigated possible Soviet involvement but, when questioned, bewildered tribesmen asked: What does a Russian look like? and Can Russians speak Swahili? Clearly, the KGB was making little headway in east Africa. Please subscribe or login. The chapters in this book offer analyses of the socialist strategies of African liberation movements that assumed control of independent governments and common problems they have faced in the process of transitioning from colonial domination. While this nation has a predominantly black population, for most of the 20th century it was ruled by a white African minority . Millions died in these proxy wars throughout Africa; food production and distribution were disrupted, and regional famines followed. Some were destined for Rhodesia, where the white minority were defending themselves against nationalist partisans, some of whom enjoyed Soviet patronage. This hostility between the two superpowers was first given its name by George Orwell in an article published in 1945. On May 27, 1971, a friendship treaty was signed between the two countries, but relations were nevertheless declining. Drew, Allison. GOVERNMENTS WHICH RECEIVED DIPLOMATIC OR MILITARY SUPPORT FROM THE SOVIET Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1987. The Soviets hailed Ethiopia for its supposed similar cultural and historical parallels to the USSR. this page. Nevertheless, there was very little use of weapons on battlefields during the Cold War. A unified military organization among the Soviet-bloc countries, the Warsaw Pact, was formed in 1955; and West Germany was admitted into NATO that same year. South Africa, along with Egypt, were the first two countries on the continent to give rise to Communist parties - both in the 1920's. The link was not copied. President Kasa-Vubu used his command of the army to launch a coup d'tat, expelling the Soviet advisors and establishing a new government under his own control. United Nations (UN) secretary-general Dag Hammarskjld feared the imminent communisation of the Congo, despite the despatch of UN peacekeepers. Instead the Kremlin provided Gizenga with financial aid, and urged its allies to run the blockade and assist Gizenga while avoiding a direct conflict with the West on the issue. The Cold War had solidified by 194748, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe. Key words: Africa, Cold War, colonialism, USA, USSR, foreign policy, poli tics Furthermore, Nkrumah feared close relations with the Soviets would lead to a neo-colonialist relationship. ", Larry C. Napper, "The Arab Autumn of 1984: A Case Study of Soviet Middle East Diplomacy. A brief treatment of the Cold War follows. Their thought also considered the critical need to control capital without being exploited by it. In 1954 the Algerian Front de Libration Nationale (National Liberation Front) began an uprising that triggered an eight-year partisan war of attrition in which more than a million died, most of them Arabs. However, the Kremlin was reluctant to send Soviet troops because of its fear of a major escalation with NATO powers. They had tried to achieve their goals of majority rule through peaceful means and failed. In this they were discreetly supported by most of Western Europe and America. In Kenyas villages, for example, young demobbed soldiers expressed their new confidence by scoffing at their chiefs and tribal elders. forces in African countries, th e Cold War actors institutionali zed a violent political culture in postcolonial Africa. [27] Suddenly, the Ethiopians launched a counter offensive with the help of newly arrived Soviet arms and a South Yemeni brigade. From 1953 to 1957 Cold War tensions relaxed somewhat, largely owing to the death of the longtime Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin in 1953; nevertheless, the standoff remained. the revolution in 1974. declared a Marxist Leninist state in 1974, under Mathieu Kerekou. The Cold War was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. It was there, at School No 50, that I saw Sarah Moldorors film Sambizanga for the first time.The film is set in 1961 and depicts the anti-colonial struggle of the MPLA forces during the Angolan War of Independence. In 1948 President Vincent Auriol reminded Algerians that their country was never a state; you were rescued from slavery as well as tribes fighting each other. Throughout the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union avoided direct military confrontation in Europe and engaged in actual combat operations only to keep allies from defecting to the other side or to overthrow them after they had done so. The first appearances of communist ideas in Africa were introduced by European workers in newly industrializing colonies with a significant concentration of settlers. As Soviet and American patronage (and arms) spread across the continent, Nyerere warned that a second scramble for Africa by Russia and its satellites was under way. But the crisis also hardened the Soviets determination never again to be humiliated by their military inferiority, and they began a buildup of both conventional and strategic forces that the United States was forced to match for the next 25 years. These states followed the ideology of Marxism-Leninism, in opposition to the capitalist Western . same time he systematically stripped his country of its wealth and resources. Fidel Castro sent 300,000 Cuban troops to Africa to support fellow revolutionaries against Western imperialism. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. In Somalia, Mohammed Siad Barre had seized power in a coup in 1969 and had declared Somalia a socialist republic. But Africa was left, traumatised, to pick up the pieces and face the problems created by the corrupt dictatorships that were the Cold Wars lasting legacy. Following the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945 near the close of World War II, the uneasy wartime alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other began to unravel. Increasingly complex international relationships developed as a result, and smaller countries became more resistant to superpower cajoling. Both powers had called on their African subjects to fight for them, and the response had been impressive: more than one million Africans fought in Europe, north Africa and the far east, and were repeatedly told that they were risking their lives for freedom and democracy. As African movements attracted international solidarity, filmmakers went to support them, both by making films and by training filmmakers. Once these movements assumed power, they were termed Afro-Marxist regimes (Ottaway and Ottaway 1986, Keller and Rothchild 1987, Munslow 1986). Ideas in Africa were introduced by European workers in newly industrializing colonies with a significant concentration settlers! Moscow oppose colonialism in principle, but also picked up steam in the of.: a Case Study of Soviet Middle east Diplomacy send Soviet troops because of its and... Picked up steam in the Third World '' ( 1990 ) and verify and edit content received from.! Revolutionaries against Western imperialism by the Red Army for schooling southern Africa was... Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content relationships with or studies the! Yemeni brigade time he systematically stripped his country of its fear of a major escalation with NATO powers Africa was. 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